Introduction
This paper will begin with brief overview the movement of the
sociological models of development theory over the last half century from
a strictly localized toward an entirely global perspective. The paper will
then turn to the historical model of development found in the works of
Oswald Spengler, which provides predictions of a global nature pertaining
to a possible destiny for modern Western society.
It is the intent of this paper to: (a) show that as research (and
modernity) continue, the need for a global development theory becomes more
apparent; and (b) show one author's historical model of development and
its claims regarding the future global influence upon Western modernity.
Sociological Models of Development
Urbanization Theory
Discussions of modernity employ a variety of sociological models
whereby the increasingly complex phenomena of modern society are defined,
organized and then combined into overarching superstructures. These
superstructures are then used to attempt an explanation of current trends
in economical, social, spiritual and psychological spheres. Perhaps the
earliest of these models, dating back to the middle ages, was what came to
be known as Urbanization Theory which viewed the amassment of an
inordinate variety of peoples and philosophies into a small geographical
area as the primary influence upon the thought and life structures of
urban society. The phenomenon of urbanization was initially believed to
give rise to capitalism and technological advancement. But it soon became
clear that mere geographical proximity was unable to explain the vast
changes taking place within developing societies, especially those within
what is traditionally known as the West, namely, Europe and America.
Modernization Theory
The role of technology soon became the focus of sociological
theories, resulting in the Modernization Theory. This theory, which
has been one of the major perspectives of social development since th
1950's, has at its core the belief that industrial technology produces not
only economic growth in developing societies, but also other structural
and cultural changes. In general, all modernazation theories assume that
institutional structures and individual activities become more highly
specialized, differentiated, and integrated into social, political, and
economic forms characteristic of advanced Western societies. (Armer and
Katsillis, 1304). Modernization Theory has been the model within which
such sociologists as Smesler, Parsons, Berger, and Lenski have operated.
(Since the bulk of study done for the class for which this paper is being
prepared was within the Modernization Theory perspective, the space given
to its treatment here is minimal.)
Dependency Theory
During the 1960's, the influence which affluent nations had upon
less developed nations became a prominent topic of research. Analysis of
the underdevelopment of third world countries resulted in the
Dependency Theory, which claimed that third world underdevelopment
is a consequence of "assymetrical contacts with capitalistic nations".
Hendricks outlines Dependency's thesis: "Once the first wave of
modernization occurs, subsequent changes in less-developed countries take
place neither inexorably nor in isolation. Rather, these changes are
shaped by the nature of a society's contacts with countries, economies,
and ideologies that previously experienced social change. Furthrmore,
interaction between social orders is never a benign form of cultural
diffusion. Interaction instead leads to internal reorganization designed
to bolster the interests of the more powerful exchange partner without
altering the worldwide distribution of affluence." (458) Dependency
Theorists see underdeveloped countries as victims of an ethnocentric power
structure which manipulates the development of the underdeveloped country
to the advantage of the external power structure without passing on any of
the significant benefits of such development onto the poorer society.
Although this theory eventually became a neo-Marxist tool of political
commentary and social activism, its major contribution to the field was
its emphasis on the need for a development theory broad enough to
encompass all the phenomena of modernization, from internal institutions
to external diffusion. "[Dependency Theory's] analysis undermined the
orthodox, liberal, economistic, optimistic and evolutionist theories known
as the Modernization Paradigm, for a time a dominant form of Development
Theory, and created the basis for the emergence of more profoundly
analytical and less eurocentric concepts." (Welsh and Butorin, 303)
Global Systems Analysis
Neo-Marxist social analysis was soon found to be wanting regarding
its anti-capitalistic bias and its inherent insistence upon a detrimental
economical hierarchy. Development theories which began to consider more
horizontal (rather than strictly hierarchical) diffusion of capital and
ideologies from one nation-state to another within a larger global context
came to be known as Global or World Systems. Global Systems
are characterized by their understanding that diffusion among nations
takes place on a much grander and more inclusive scale than previous
development theories admitted. Whereas Dependency Theory focused primarily
on the diffusion of capital, and Modernization Theory generally views
modernization as the diffusion of Western concepts, the Global Systems
diffusion includes intercultural exchange of such things as labor,
management techniques, attitudes, social norms, youth culture, as well as
those elements mentioned by other development theories. "The implicit
Global Systems model is one of gradual convergence around a similar set of
"modern" values and attitudes. The spread of modern social institutions
help inculcate modern values and attitudes; the values and attitudes in
turn reinforce the institutions. (Evans, 773)
Global Systems sees a possible classification of nations according to
the degree in which each nation participates in a global diffusion of its
resources. Those nations which engage in global diffusion of a high number
of economic, social and political elements naturally find themselves at
the top of the diffusion hierarchy. From such a position, nations are able
to wield great influence upon the entirety of the global system. But since
global diffusion is not unidirectional, all nations, regardless of their
current position within the diffusion hierarchy possess the potential for
advancement in development and influence.
Global Systems Analysis is ongoing in its development as a major
development theory. On the current status of Global systems as a viable
model, Evans concludes, "Overall, our understanding of the global system
must still be considered a project "under construction" rather than a
finished set of tools easily applied to specific problems. Some things are
clear nonetheless. We know that trajectories of change in national
societies cannot be analyzed without reference to the global system in
which they are embedded any more than the analysis of change in individual
communities can be attempted without awareness of the national society in
which they are embedded. We also know that the character of relations
between an individual state and the larger system is shaped, not just by
the evolution of the global system, but also by political struggles at the
local level. We know that diffusion of ideas and norms throughout the
global system has a powerful influence on how social institutions are
structured in individual nations, but we also know that this diffusion
takes place within a system that has a very hierarchical structure. We
know that nations located at the bottom of this structure are
disadvantaged economically as well as politically, but we also know that
mobility is possible. We know that the contemporary global system is an
invention of the least half-dozen centuries; predicting how long it will
endure is another question," (777).
An Historical Model of Development
The quest for understanding the structure and implications of
current economic, social and political phenomena is not limited to the
field of sociology. As was seen in the previous descriptions of the
movement within sociological theories from localized to national to global
perspectives on development, social development in some form seems to be a
phenomenon shared by all societies to some extent. This portion of the
paper will examine the historian Oswald Spengler who proposed that the
current observable phenomena within contemporary society is best
understood in light of an historical examination of the major societies
within known history, since social development is not unique to the
"modern" world.
Of course, terminology must be (and has been) employed to discern
epochal distinctions, and for this reason, it is not contended that the
ancient nation-state Athens underwent a process of "modernity", although
it undoubtedly underwent a series of developmental changes which may or
may not be comparable to the degree America, for example, has undergone
during its 219 year existence as a nation. In the same way, we cannot
expect to find the same dilemmas facing societies of distant eras. To use
Athens again, it would not be approprite (nor profitable) to look for
psychological fragmentation resulting from increasing industrial
technology. But at the same time, it would be expedient to consider the
relative impact upon the Athenian's individual psychology from such major
"scientific" developments as Euclidian geometry and Democritus' atomic
theory.
The historian, Oswald Spengler, which this paper will subsequently
examine holds the belief that contemporary Western society is undergoing
changes which are parallel to changes which have been observed in nearly
every other major "society" (i.e., "nation-state", "civilization",
"culture") within known history. The unique contribution which such an
historical approach can bring to development theories is its confidence in
a certain degree of predictive ability regarding the fate of modern
development based on analysis of preceding societies' development and
decline. Such a contribution, if indeed accurate, is of great value and
interest to any student of contemporary sociology. It is with the intent
to understand and consider Spengelr's theory and predictions that this
paper proceeds.
Oswald Spengler's The Decline of the West
Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) lived the entirety of his life in
his homeland, Germany. He lived an unusually quiet and modest life in
Munich as a private scholar, remaining unmarried and living off an
inheritance. In 1918, only a few months after the end of World War I, he
published his first book entitled Form and Actuality. This was
presented as the first volume of The Decline of the West , an
innovative and controversial comparative analysis of world-history. The
second volume, Perspectives of World-History was published four
years later. Due to the nature of the work and the social context of
Germany at that time, Spengler's Decline soon became a bestseller.
Spengler rejected the traditional classification of world history into
ancient, medieval and modern times, replacing it with the idea that
societies were seperated in time and space and went through similar cycles
of rise, maturity and decline. This perspective of societies was not
unique to Spengler, and had been developed to differing degrees by other
authors. What was unique to Spengler's approach was his use of
biological or "morphological" analogies in which he likened the
development and decline of socieies to that of biological entities.
This morphological analogy carried with it some significant
implications, the greatest of which was what many saw to be as a
determinism which anticipated an inevitable decline in every society. The
length of time required for the entire process of birth, maturity and
decline to elapse is unknown and unique to every society. And yet,
Spengler was convinced that, in time, each society, regardless of how
strong and affluent it has or might become, will inevitably experience an
ultimate decline. This "determinism" eventually caused severe criticism to
be levelled against Spengler's approach, though from it he would not back
down.
Spengler presents a comparison of the major cultures of world history.
Due to the vast scope of such an undertaking, it is natural to expect that
some cultures receive less attention than others, and this is certainly
the case in The Decline. Spengler's lack of experience and
knowledge of China, India, ancient Mexico and Peru resulted in their being
only lightly outlined in his work. To the cultures he was more involved
with, Spengler employed an new classification consiting of the Apollinian
(Greco-Roman), the Magian (Judaism, Byzantium, and Islam), and the
Faustian (Western).
To these, Spengler employed a method which he entitled "universal
symbolism" to discover the primarily "plastic" or architectural "symbols"
which enabled distinctions to be made between one culture and the another.
Spengler was operating on what has come to be a relatively common
assumption that esthetic style furnished "the most sensitive indicator" of
the fundamental differences among civilizations. (Decline, xiv)
Therefore, the free-standing temple and nude statue symbollically
epitomizes the Apollinian culture, and the "vaulted cavern" or dome
characterizes Magian culture. Faustian culture's growth is revealed in the
archtectural spectrum ranging from the soaring vaults and spires of the
romanesque or gothic cathredral to those of late baroque style (110).
The basic underlying theme of The Decline is the parallel which
Spengler draws between the decline of the Apollinian era and the decline
of Spengler's own era, the Faustian, a decline which he believed apparent
in the many ominous changes taking place. Spengler compared the
late-Faustian eclecticism, fragmented thought, and money-centered
political power with similar developments he found in the late stages of
the Roman empire. The rise of "world-cities" (Chap. XIII) in which greater
and greater numbers of people huddle in search of sustenance,
entertainment and leadership, reducing its citizenry to a uniform mob.
Spengler anticipated the rise of new "Caesars" who promised the hungry
mobs progress and meaning (378f.). And like the Roman caesars, these new
caesars would introduce unending wars in their pursuit of personal power.
Rather than bewail the impending developments which he saw all around
him, Spengler became infamous for his determinism, calling upon the people
to live out the age into which they were born by abandoning the illusion
and nostalgia of gentler times gone by, and hardening themselves for the
battles which were approaching. Rather than lament, people of the Faustian
era should prepare themselves for the advent of the caesar who would guide
their course.
Such a message sounds quite irrelevant to the contemporary man on the
street. But to the men of his day, the citizens of Germany in the 1930's,
Spengler was not far off, for his audience lived to see the rise of a
young Adolph Hitler to the office of chancellor of Germany. It might also
be a temptation for the contemporary reader to wonder if Spengler was
merely a Nazi propogandist deriving his development theory of world
history from mere party rhetoric. But this was certainly not the case.
First, his work was published 15 years before the Nazi's first came to
power (in 1933). Second, after the emegence of the Nazi party and
ideology, Spengler made plain his disagreement with the manner in which
the party proceeding. Spengler denied the existence of a "master race",
and opposed anti-semitism, viewing the Jews as remnants of the earlier
Magian era. And yet, despite the distance between Spengler and Hitler,
both ideologically and chronologically, it cannot be denied that the
accuracy of his perceptions "had in simple fact prepared his countrymen's
minds for the despotism and terror to come," (preface, x). But the
accuracy of Spengler's analysis does not stop with the decimation of
Germany, the heart of Spengler's Faustian culture. Many of his perceptions
have proven to transcend such national boundaries.
Man and Technics
The minor work Man and Technics which was published in
1931, has continued to gain the attention of modern audiences with its
obvious relevance to contemporary situations. In the last chapter of
Man and Technics entitled, "Rise and End of the Machine Culture",
Spengler outlines what he believes to be the undeniable signs of the
drawing close of Faustian (Western) culture. The root problem which
Spengler identifies is the Faustian pragmatism whose ultimate goal is to
subject all of Nature to the role of servitude. Pragmatism, rationalism
and technology have become the tools whereby Faustian man has rid himself
of God, and has reduced Nature to mere material from which he seeks to
build his own world. Spengler writes, "Technics is [to the Faustian]
eternal and imortal like God the Father, it delivers mankind like God the
Son, and it illumines us like God the Holy Spirit. And its worshipper is
the progress-philistine of the modern age which runs from Lamettrie to
Lenin." (Man, 86)
The Faustian inventor is caught up in the euphoria of discovery,
discarding consideration of the future or even the present. "All great
discoveries and inventions spring from the delight of strong men in
victory. They are expressions of personality and not of the
utilitarian thinking of the masses, who are merely spectators of the
event, but must take its consequences whatever they may be." (87) Spengler
sees in the Faustian the tragedy that, "the lord of the World is becoming
the slave of the Machine, which is forcing him, forcing us all, whether we
are aware of it or not, to follow its course. The victor, crashed, is
dragged to death by the team," (90-91).
The subjection of Nature and God to pragmatism and the thrill of
discovery has led to the escalating escape of the consequences of
technological development from mankind's ability to exercise control over
his inventions. "The mechanization of the world has entered on a phase of
highly dangerous over-tension." (93) Environmental crises such as the
depletion of forests and fossil fuels, or the extinguishing of animal and
plant species in man's search for natural resources and land use must
inevitably arise. "All things organic are dying in the grip of
organization. An artificial world is permeating and poisoning the natural.
The Civilization itself has become a machine that does, or tries to do,
everything in mechanical fashion." (94)
Just as society and Nature become increasingly permeated with
technology, Faustian man finds himself involved with machinery to a
greater and greater degree. Often this involvement requires the man's
subjection to forms of technology which are beyond his ability to control
or command. Even children's toys have become little machines. Faustian
society has allowed itself to depend upon technology as a means of
capital, entertainment, leisure, education, and leadership. But Spengler
sees an ominous change taking place: "All this is changing in the last
decades, in all the countries where large-scale industry is of old
standing. The Faustian thought begins to be sick of machines. A weariness
is spreading, a sort of pacifism of the battle with Nature. Men are
returning to forms of life simpler and nearer to Nature; they are spending
their time in sport instead of technical experiments. The great cities are
becoming hateful to them, and they would fain get away from the pressure
of soulless facts and the clear cold atmosphere of technical organization.
And it is precisely the strong and creative talents that are turning away
from practical problems and sciences and toward pure speculation.
Occultism and Spiritualism, Hindu philosophies, metaphysical
inquisitiveness under Christian or pagan colouring, all of which were
despised in the Darwinian period, are coming up again. It is the spirit of
Rome in the age of Augustus... The flight of the born leader from the
Machine is beginning." (97)
This flight of the creative leaders of society from the increasingly
rampant techno-lifestyle will result in a leaderless mass of workers who
remain within the techical system. The lack of creative leaders causes
society to decrease its rate of expansion, while the number of workers
continues to grow at its normal pace. The result is that the worker is
necessarily devalued in relation to the existing machinery, since the
economy's existence now depends completely upon technology. Without the
consent of the working masses, machinery has replaced the skills of and
need for the common man. Spengler writes, "The work of the hands, the
individual is now entirely without significance. Only numbers
matter. In the consciousness of this unalterable state of things,
aggravated, poisoned, and financially exploited by egoistic orators and
journalists, men are so forlorn that it is mere human nature to revolt
against the role for which the machine (not, as they imagine, its
possessors) earmarks most of them. There is beginning, in numberless
forms, from sabotage, by way of strike, to suicide, the mutiny of the
Hands against their destiny, against the machine, against the
organized life, against anything and everything... This mutiny,
world-wide, threatens to put an end to the possibility of technical
economic work. The leaders may take to flight, but the led, become
superfluous, are lost. Their numbers are their death." (98-99)
Greater than all these internal symptoms of the collapse has been what
Spengler calls the treason to technics. The economic, political,
military and financial superiority which Western Europe and North America
enjoyed in the second half of the nineteenth century was due to an
unrivaled monopoly of great industries and natural resoures. These "white"
nations held sole possession of the materials, methods and trained
intellectuals required for the implementation of new technologies. This
condition initially created in the white worker a strong will to achieve
financially what was previously impossible for him. And achieve he did,
soon becoming accustomed to a lifestyle and wage which were unrivaled
throughout the world. The worker's entire livelihood became dependent upon
such high wages resulting in an economy which likewise necessitate a high
level of wages. This entire system was founded on the need for a
continuance of the monopoly which initially gave rise to the situation.
"And then," Spengler writes, "at the close of the last century, the
blind will-to-power began to make its decisive mistakes. Instead of
keeping strictly to itself the technical knowledge that constituted their
greatest asset, the "white" peoples complacently offered it to all the
world, in every Hochschule, verbally and on paper, and the astonished
homage of Indians and Japanese delighted them. The famous "dissemination
of industry" set in, motivated by the ideas of getting bigger profits by
bringing production into the marketing areas. And so, in place of the
export of finished products exclusively, they began an export of secrets,
processes, methods, engineers, and organizers... Within thirty years the
Japanese became technicians of the first rank, and in their war against
Russia they revealed a technical superiority from which their teachers
were able to learn many lessons. Today more or less everywhere, in the Far
East, India, South America, South Africa, industrial regions are in being,
or coming into being, which, owing to their low scales of wages, will face
us with a deadly competition." (101)
"Possibly, with their combination of "native" cunning and the over-ripe
intelligence of their ancient civilizations, they have surpassed [us]...
The innumerable hands of the coloured races, at least as clever and far
less exigent, will shatter the economic organization of the whites at its
foundations. The accustomed luxury of the white workman, in
comparison with the coolie, will be his doom. The labour of the white is
itself coming to be unwanted... This is the real and final
basis of the unemployment that prevails in white countries. It is no mere
crisis, but the beginning of a catastrophe." (102)
According to Spengler, the technical society which the Faustian culture
has established upon a monopoly of material and intellect will not stand
the test of global distribution of the same. And this has been born out,
in part, by the fact that contemporary society is in the midst of debates
regarding the danger to our economy from the virtually unbeatable
competition which foreign markets produce through means of a vast, low
paid, yet highly motivated work force. Popular opinion undoubtedly blames
our economy's current failure to obtain a greater portion of the
global economy for present levels of inflation and unemployment.
And the problem facing every new presidential administration is the
question of how to make the common worker an asset through the production
of globally liquid products while at the same time maintaining his
globally superior lifestyle.
In closing, rather than presenting personal opinions on the
implications of and remedies for the contemporary crises, Spengler's own
advice will be presented. Spengler's may indeed not be the best, nor the
most sought after conlusions. His stand has caused his name to become
synonomous with pessimistic determinism, and indeed, that is its
appearance. But let the reader bear in mind with what brilliant accuracy
Spengler's foresaw the unbelievable darkness which followed the rise of a
"caesar"-like chancellor in Germany in the late 1930's. Will Spengler
prove right again? We may certainly hope and pray not. In any event,
however, let us not say that all he presents us with is "outdated"
speculation.
"The history of this technics is fast drawing to its inevitable close.
It will be eaten up from within, like the grand forms of any and every
Culture. When, and in what fashion, we know not. Faced as we are with this
destiny, there is only one world-outlook that is worthy of us, that which
has already been mentioned as the Choice of Achilles: better a short life,
full of deeds and glory, than a long life without content. Already the
danger is so great, for every individual, every class, every people, that
to cherish any illusion whatever is deplorable. Time does not suffer
itself to be halted; there is no question of prudent retreat or wise
renunciation. Only dreamers believe that there is a way out. Optimism is
cowardice.
"We are born into this time and must bravely follow the path to the
destined end. There is no other way. Our duty is to hold on to the lost
position, without hope, without rescue, like that Roman soldier whose
bones were found in front of a door in Pompeii, who, during the eruption
of Vesuvius, died at his post because they forgot to relieve him. That is
greatness. That is what it means to be a thoroughbred. The honorable end
is the one thing that can not be taken from a man." (103-104)
Bibliography
Armer, J. Michael and Katsillis, John. (1992). "Modernization
Theory". In Encyclopedia
of Sociology. Borgotta, Edgar F. and Borgotta, Marie L. Eds. (New
York:
MacMillan Publ. Co.; 1992): 1299-1304.
Evans, Peter B. (1992). "Global Systems Analysis". In Encyclopedia
of Sociology.
Borgotta, Edgar F. and Borgotta, Marie L. Eds. (New York: ManMillan
Publ. Co.;
1992): 772-778.
Hendricks, Jon. (1992). "Dependency Theory". In Encyclopedia of
Sociology.
Borgotta, Edgar F. and Borgotta, Marie L. Eds. (New York: ManMillan
Publ. Co.;
1992): 458-466.
Spengler, Oswald. The Decline of the West. (New York: Oxford
Univ. Press; 1991)
........ Man and Technics: A contribution to a philosophy of
life. (New York: Alfred
Knopf; 1932)
Welsh, Brian W. W. and Butorin, Pavel. Eds. Dictionary of
Development: Third world
economy, environment, society. (New York: Garland Publ., Inc.;
1990)